In our previous two articles, we had
discussed the date of the birth of the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam) and
demonstrated that there are over half a dozen opinions, the strongest being
that he was born on the 8th of Rabīʻ al-Awwal, in the Year of the
Elephant. We also mentioned that the first recorded instance of a public
celebration of the mawlid occurred in Shi’ite Fatimid Egypt, around the
turn of the sixth century of the hijra. In this article, we shall
mention the earliest references in Sunni lands to the mawlid.
The Mawlid in Sunni Lands
The earliest recorded reference in
Sunni lands of the mawlid occurs in a history book written by ʻImad
al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī (d. 597 AH/1200 CE), entitled al-Barq al-Shāmī. This
work mentions the main political occurrences of Greater Syria (i.e., Sham)
during the last three decades of the sixth Islamic century, in particular the
wars of the Muslims against the Crusaders. Unfortunately, the original work
remains in manuscript form and has yet to be edited, but a number of summaries
exist, the most famous one being Sanā al-Barq al-Shāmī of al-Bundari. It
is from this printed work [1] that the following is extracted.
In the year 566/1170, Nūr al-Dīn
al-Zangī’s (d. 569/1174) brother passed away in Mosul, a well-known city of
Iraq. Nūr al-Dīn was the famous leader of the Zangid dynasty, and helped propel
Salāh al-Dīn al-Ayyūbī (d. 588/1193) to fame. Nūr al-Dīn visited the city of
Mosul in order to quell a dispute regarding the succession of his brother, who
had been the governor of the region. There, the historian tells us, he met a
certain ‘Umar al-Mulla, who was in charge of a zawiya (Sufi monastery).
This zawiya was a popular place for the local leaders and noblemen to
visit, and in particular “…every year, during the days of the mawlid of
the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam) he would invite the governor of Mosul,
along with the poets, who would come and sing their poems, and be rewarded [by
the governor] for this.”[2]
This small reference, in passing, is
the earliest reference we have to a public mawlid being celebrated in
Sunni lands. The person who initiated it, ‘Umar al-Mulla, was a venerated Sufi
ascetic, and not a scholar of the religion. We do not know many details of his
life or even date of death. And while the historian ‘Imad al-Dīn did claim he
was a righteous saint (a claim that was mentioned by all those who copied the
story from Imad al-Dīn’s work), another scholar strongly disagreed. Ibn Rajab
(d. 795), in his biographical dictionary Dhayl Ṭabaqat al-Ḥanabilah,
mentions this ‘Umar al-Mulla, also in passing, in the context of a famous
Ḥanbalite scholar. Under the entry of Muḥammad b. Abd al-Bāqī (d. 571), a
Ḥanbalite scholar from Mosul, he mentions how ‘Umar al-Mulla was greatly
respected in the city of Mosul, and a disagreement happened between the two of
them, which resulted in Muḥammad b. Abd al-Bāqī being falsely accused of
stealing, because of which he was beaten. Writes Ibn Rajab,[3] “As for this
‘Umar, he outwardly showed himself to be a pious man and ascetic, but I believe
him to be [a follower] of the innovated groups. And this incident [with
Muḥammad b. Abd al-Bāqī] also shows his injustices and transgressions [against
others].” And Ibn Kathīr (d. 774) mentions that when Nūr al-Dīn Zangi abolished
the unjust taxes that had been levied on the people, ‘Umar al-Mulla actually
wrote him a letter chastising him for his decision, and saying that this would
lead to an increase of evil in the land. At which Nūr al-Dīn responded back,
saying,
“Allāh created the creation, and
legislated the Sharīʻah, and He knows best what is beneficial for them.
So if He knew that there should have been an increase [in revenue from taxes],
He would have legislated it for us. Hence, there is no need for us to take more
than what Allāh has decreed, since whoever adds to the Sharīʻah has
presumed that the Sharīʻah is incomplete and he needs to perfect it by
his addition. And to do this is arrogance against Allāh and against what He has
legislated, but darkened minds will never be guided, and may Allāh guide us and
you to the Straight Path.”[4]
In what can only be described as a
reversal of traditional roles, it was the ruler who chastised the ʻsaint’ when
‘Umar al-Mulla actually encouraged the collection of unjust taxes, while Nūr
al-Din sought to abolish it.
Before proceeding, it is noteworthy
that the mawlid instituted by ‘Umar al-Mulla involved singing poems in
praise of the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam) and nothing more than this.
Unfortunately, the books of history do not mention the nature or content of
these poems; however, it would not be too far-fetched to assume that at this
early stage the poems would have praised the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam)
in the manner that he truly deserves, and without the attribution of Divine
characteristics to him that later poets are guilty of.
The city of Mosul was located in a
relatively small province, and remained under the control of the larger Zangid
Empire. Hence, it was only natural that mawlid celebrations performed in
Mosul would not garner too much attention nor have a large budget at their
disposal to use for the mawlids. Rather, for this to occur, it had to be
sponsored by a dynasty that could afford to do so, and this dynasty was found
in the neighbouring province of Irbil, a city less than a day’s journey from
Mosul. As news of the mawlid spread to this city, the ruler of the
semi-autonomous province, Muẓẓafar al-Dīn Kokburi (d. 630/1232), took it upon
himself to celebrate the mawlid in an extremely lavish manner. It would
take another few decades for the mawlid to spread to Irbil, but
eventually, sometime in the early part of the seventh century, Muẓẓafar al-Dīn
became famous for the extravagant mawlid ceremonies that were sponsored
through the State Treasury of his principality.
The historian Ibn Khallikān (d.
681/1282) mentions that Muẓẓafar al-Dīn was known for his generosity, for he
had built many khānqahs (monasteries) for the Sufis to worship in. Ibn
Khallikān was also from Irbil, and was a friend of Muẓẓar al-Dīn, and witnessed
first-hand the mawlid celebrations. Writes Ibn Khallikān:[5]
Two days before the mawlid,
Muẓẓafar al-Dīn would take out camels, cows and sheep – a large number, beyond
counting – and he would send these animals, accompanied with drums and song and
other instruments, until they would reach the large open ground [outside the city].
Then, these animals would be slaughtered, and pots would be set up, and all
types of different foods would be cooked, until finally it would be the Night
of the Mawlid itself [meaning the night before the mawlid].
On that night, he would allow samāʻas [special poems] to be sung in his
fort, and then he would descend down [to the people], the procession being led
by countless candles. Amongst these candles were two, or four – I forget now –
that were so large that each one had to be carried on a mule, and behind it was
a man in charge of keeping the candle erect [on the mule], until it reached the
Sufi monastery. Then, on the very morning of the mawlid, he commanded
that the Royal Robe be taken out from the Palace to the khānqah (Sufi
monastery), by the hands of the Sufis. Each Sufi would wear an expensive sash
around his hand, and they would all walk in a procession, one behind the other
– so many in number that I could not verify their quantity. Then, Muẓẓafar
al-Dīn himself would descend to the khānqah, and all of the noblemen and
leaders and gentry would gather together. A chair would be placed for the
preachers, and Muẓẓafar al-Dīn himself would be in a special tower made of wood
[that he had built for the occasion]. It had many windows, some of which faced
the people and others faced the open ground, which was a large ground of
immense size. The infantry would also gather there, in procession. So Muẓẓafar
al-Dīn would listen throughout the day, sometimes looking at the people and
sermons, and sometimes at the infantry, and this would continue until the
infantry finished their processions. Then, a general tablecloth would be laid
out for the poor, and all who wished could eat from it, bread and other types
of foods beyond count! And there was another tablecloth laid out as well, for
the people of the monastery, those close to the throne, and while the sermons
would be delivered, he would call [each speaker] one by one, and the noblemen
and leaders and guests who had come for this season: scholars, and preachers,
and reciters, and poets, and he would give each of them garments, and they
would then return to their seats. Once this was finished, they would all gather
at the tablecloth to partake of the food. This would continue until the ‘Aṣr
prayer, or even after that, and he would spend the night there, and the samaʻās
would continue to the next day. And this would be done every year, and what I
have described is in fact a condensed summary of the reality, for to mention it
in detail would be too cumbersome and take a long time. Finally, when these
ceremonies would be completed, he would gift an amount to every visitor who had
come from afar, as provision for his journey home. And I have already mentioned
how, when Ibn Diḥya passed by Irbil, he wrote up a work regarding the mawlid,
because of what he had seen Muẓẓafar al-Dīn do, and because of this he was
gifted a thousand gold coins, along with the generous hospitality he was shown
for the duration of his stay.
As can be seen, the ceremony of
Muẓẓafar al-Dīn was an extremely lavish and extravagant affair, and would draw
large crowds of locals and also visitors. It is clear that the relatively
innocuous mawlid of ‘Umar al-Mulla was now being taken to a different
level. And because the celebrations of Muẓẓafar al-Dīn attracted more attention
than those of ʻUmar al-Mulla, they played a crucial role in spreading the
custom of the mawlid and increasing its popularity.
From this, it is clear that the mawlid
was imported into Sunni lands at the beginning of the seventh Islamic century,
through the actions of ‘Umar al-Mulla and then Muẓẓafar al-Dīn. A contemporary
author proves this point beyond a shadow of doubt. Abū Shāmah al-Maqdisi (d.
665) was a famous historian from Damascus. He wrote a number of works, and is
most famous for his book Kitāb al-Bāʻith ʻalā inkār al-bidaʻ wa-l-ḥawādith.
In it, he follows the opinion that religious innovations can be either
reprehensible or praiseworthy (a theological opinion which was and remains the
subject of debate amongst scholars, and which deserves to be discussed in
another article), and considers the mawlid to be a praiseworthy
innovation. What concerns us here is not Abū Shāmah’s legal verdict on the mawlid,
but rather his historical context. He writes, [6]
And of the best matters that have
been introduced in our times is that which occurs in the city of Irbil –
may Allāh protect it – every year, on the day that the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi
wa salam) was born. [On this day], charity is distributed, and good
[deeds performed], and pageantry is displayed, and happiness [is abundant]. And
all of this, in addition to being beneficial to the poor, is an outward
manifestation of the love of the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam) and
demonstrates respect for him, and honour in the heart of the one who does this
[celebration], and thankfulness to Allāh for what He has blessed us with in the
existence of the Messenger that He has sent as a mercy to the worlds. And
the first person who ever did this was [a man] from Mosul, the Shaykh ‘Umar b.
Muḥammad al-Mulla, a well-known, righteous man, and it was from his
custom that the Governor of Irbil, and others besides him, took this act from.
From this passage, it is clear that
the custom of the mawlid was already known to Abū Shāmah in Damascus,
but he points out that the celebration occurs in Irbil, and not in Damascus.
Hence, at this stage, in the middle of the seventh century, news of the mawlid
has reached Damascus, which is around 500 miles away, but the city of Damascus
itself has yet to start its own mawlid.
It is also striking to note the
similarities between the Fatimid celebrations of the mawlid and the ones
sponsored by Muẓẓafar al-Dīn: in both cases, the pomp and pageantry and
generosity lavished upon the population must have played a vital role in
popularizing these rulers amongst the people.
Before moving on, it is relevant to
backtrack a few decades and mention another rudimentary version of the mawlid
(if it can even be called such). This version is found in the travelogue of Ibn
Jubayr (d. 614), who set foot from Andalus to perform the Hajj and spent the
next few years touring Muslim lands, finally settling down in North Africa to
record his travels. Ibn Jubayr entered Mecca in 579, and he mentions that on
the first Monday of Rabīʻ al-Awwal, the house in which the Prophet (Ṣallāhu
‘alayhi wa salam) was reputed to have been born in would be open for visitors,
along with some other ancient historic sites associated with the life of the
Prophet, and visitors would enter these houses and seek blessings from
it.[7][8]
Therefore, it is clear that Muslims
of Mecca did do something special on the first Monday of Rabīʻ al-Awwal, and
that is to open the house of the Prophet’s birth. Of significance, though, is
that that is all they did. There are no celebrations, no
festivals, no songs, no ceremonies. All of this was to come later. In fact, in
Mecca the mawlid was not even ‘celebrated’ on the 12th of
Rabīʻ al-Awwal, but rather on the first Monday of the month. This was the
extent of the mawlid in Mecca in the latter part of the sixth century,
before the customs of Muẓẓafar al-Dīn were done in the far away city of Irbil.
Hence, to quote this as justification for modern-day mawlids is simply
not appropriate.
It can be seen, then, that slowly but
surely, the practice of celebrating the mawlid spread to other Muslim
lands, and as the decades turned to centuries, more and more layers of
celebrations were added. For most lands, it is impossible to document the
precise date when the mawlid was initiated, or even the person who
exported the idea to each land. Sometimes, however, we are provided such clues.
For example, we can trace the beginnings of the mawlid in North Africa,
and thence to Andalus to the efforts of a certain Abū al-ʻAbbās al-Azafī (d.
633), who wrote a work entitled ʻThe Edited Pearl Regarding the Birth of the
Honoured Prophet‘. The work was the spearheading effort that eventually
legitimized the celebration of the mawlid. In it, Abū al-ʻAbbās clearly
states that his purpose in legitimizing the celebration of the mawlid is
so that the Muslims desist in the evil and reprehensible act of celebrating
Christmas, Nawruz and other holy days of the Christians and pagans that some
Muslims of Andalus had begun to adopt. He writes, “I have searched intensively
and racked my brains to find something that would distract the attention of the
people away from these bidʻahs to something that is permissible, which
does not cause the one observing it to sin…Therefore, I drew their attention to
the birth of the Prophet Muḥammad…” Later in the work, he refutes those who
have criticized this act as being a reprehensible innovation by claiming that
the mawlid is a praiseworthy innovation, not a reprehensible one. This
in itself shows that there were scholars in Andalus who were opposed to this
practice and dissaproved of it, hence al-Azafi was forced to defend the
practice.[9]
From all the above, we can derive:
1) The very first Sunni to
publically celebrate the mawlid was a Sufi mystic by the name of ‘Umar
al-Mulla. He seems to be a person of dubious character, and the least that can
be said about him was that he was by no means a scholar of the religion.
2) Government-sponsored mawlids
in Sunni lands were first introduced by Muẓẓafar al-Dīn, who got the idea from
‘Umar al-Mulla. These celebrations were extremely popular amongst the masses,
and helped secure popularity for the rulers.
3) Late in the sixth Islamic century,
the mawlid had been introduced to some Sunni lands, but the main
lands of Islam (e.g., Mecca, Damascus, etc.) had not yet begun to commemorate
the day with any festival.
4) In Mecca, no festival or public
celebration occurred, instead the birth-date was an occasion to open up
historic sites for the people. Also, the birth-date itself had not yet been
associated with the 12th of Rabīʻ al-Awwal; rather, it was
associated with the first Monday of Rabīʻ al-Awwal.
5) The association of the mawlid with
the 12th of Rabīʻ al-Awwal was clearly a Fatimid influence, which
was later followed by other government-sponsored mawlids.
6) The mawlid spread in
various lands due to miscellaneous factors. In some lands, it was patronized by
the rulers and used as a means of legitimizing their rule. In other lands, it
was used as a tactic to divert Muslims from that which was clearly
impermissible to a matter that was deemed to be praiseworthy.
Later Claims Regarding the Origin of
the Mawlid
It is quite clear that the Fatimid
celebration, having preceded the Sunni one by almost a century, was the actual
origin of the mawlid. However, most later authorities (most famously
al-Suyūtī (d. 911) in his treatise on the subject), either knowingly or
unknowingly glossed over the Fatimid origins of the mawlid, and
attributed it to the Sunni ruler Muẓẓafar al-Dīn Kokburi. A few modern
researchers (such as Kaptein) have theorized that this was done intentionally,
in order to cover up the Shiʻite origins of the festival and attribute it to a
popular Sunni ruler, viz., Muẓẓafar al-Dīn. But for our purposes it matters
little whether al-Suyūtī was aware of the Fatimid origins of the mawlid or
not; the fact that cannot be denied is that the origin of a public celebration
goes back to their empire, and suspiciously, Muẓẓafar al-Dīn’s similar festival
occurred almost a century after theirs.
Therefore, to attribute the origins
of the mawlid to Muẓẓafar al-Dīn, or even ʻUmar al-Mulla, is simply not
accurate.
Conclusion
The purpose of this article was to
give a brief overview regarding the origins of the celebration of the Prophet’s
birthday, and some examples of how it spread to other lands. It did not
discuss the legal validity for such a celebration, as that is another topic
altogether, and one that has been hashed and rehashed on many different sites
and forums.
My own leanings, which I have never
shied away from expressing, are the same as those of Ibn Taymiyya (d. 728) that
he mentioned in his work Iqtiḍā Sirāt al-mustaqīm: that the general
ruling is that such a celebration is not a part of the religion, but was added
by later generations, and hence should be avoided; but it is possible that some
groups of people who practice it out of ignorance will be rewarded due to their
good intentions. The mawlid of the Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam)
should be celebrated every day, by following his Sunnah and doing in our
daily lives what he (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam) wanted us to do.
I also stress that even if I
disapprove of a public celebration of the mawlid, not all mawlids are
the same, and if the only matter that is done on a mawlid is to praise
the beloved Prophet (Ṣallāhu ‘alayhi wa salam) in an appropriate manner, and
mention aspects of his sīrah, and thank Allāh for blessing us to be of
his Ummah, then this type of celebration is permissible, in fact
praiseworthy, on any day of the year, and hence even if some groups
choose one specific day to do it, others should not be harsh in their
disapproval of it. I believe that the fatwas given by such esteemed
authorities as Ibn Hajr (d. 852) and al-Nawawi (d. 676) legitimizing mawlids
refer, in fact, to such ‘innocent’ mawlids. Sadly, it is well-nigh
impossible to find such ‘pure’ mawlids practiced in our times!
To conclude, it is appropriate to
quote a non-Muslim author who has specialized in the topic of the mawlid
and written a doctoral dissertation on it, N. J. G. Kaptein. He writes in his
monograph,[10]
At the end of this chapter, I would
like to draw attention to a number of points that are important for the general
history of the mawlid al-nabi:
a) the mawlid was originally
a Shiʻite festival
b) the mawlid came into being
in the sixth hijri / twelfth Christian century
c) in the Fatimid period the mawlid
was not always celebrated on the same date: in 517 the mawlid was
celebrated on the 13th Rabīʻ, while according to Ibn Ṭuwayr this
festival always fell on the 12th Rabīʻ
d) The mawlid was celebrated
during the daytime
e) the ruler played a central role
f) sermons were given and
recitations from the Qurʾān took place
g) presentations to officials took
place
h) by means of these presentations,
amongst other things, the Fatimid’s close relationship with the ahl al-bayt
was emphasized, in order to cultivate loyalty to the Fatimid imām-Caliph
i) after the fall of the Fatimids,
the mawlid continued to exist.
Kaptein’s conclusions are very
reasonable and have clear evidence to back them up, as this article has also
showed.
And Allāh knows best…
[1] Sanā al-Barq al-Shāmī,
Cairo edition, p. 49-52
[2] Also see Ibn Kathir, al-Bidāyah
wa-l-Nihāyah, vol. 12, p. 782
[3] Dhayl, vol.
1, p. 254
[4] al-Bidāyah wa-l-Nihāyah,
vol. 12, p. 805
[5] In his Wafayāt al-Ayān,
vol. 5, p. 78-9
[6] Kitāb al-bāʻith,
(Cairo print, 1978), p. 24
[7] See: The Travels of Ibn
Jubayr, ed. M. J. De Goeje, p. 114-5
[8] It must be mentioned here,
of course, that the practice of seeking blessings from ancient relics was one
that was disputed amongst the scholars of Islam, and legal textbooks of the
period reference this fact. The more Orthodox scholars disapproved of this
practice, and it was generally sanctioned by the masses, and not scholars.
However, that is the topic of another paper.
[9] See: P. Shinar,
“Traditional and reformist mawlid celebrations in the Maghrib” in: Studies
in Memory of G. Wiet, Jerusalem 1977, pp. 371-413; and N. G. J. Kaptien, Muḥammad’s
Birthday Festival, Brill, pp. 76-96
[10] p. 29
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